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  • PVEducation

  • Menu
  • Instructions
  • 1. Introduction
    • 1. Introduction
    • Solar Energy
    • Introduction
    • The Greenhouse Effect
  • 2. Properties of Sunlight
    • 2. Properties of Sunlight
    • 2.1. Basics of Light
    • Properties of Light
    • Energy of Photon
    • Photon Flux
    • Spectral Irradiance
    • Radiant Power Density
    • 2.2. Blackbody Radiation
    • Blackbody Radiation
    • 2.3. Solar Radiation
    • The Sun
    • Solar Radiation in Space
    • Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere
    • 2.4. Terrestrial Solar Radiation
    • Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
    • Atmospheric Effects
    • Air Mass
    • Motion of the Sun
    • Solar Time
    • Declination Angle
    • Elevation Angle
    • Azimuth Angle
    • The Sun's Position
    • Sun Position Calculator
    • Sun's Position to High Accuracy
    • Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
    • Arbitrary Orientation and Tilt
    • Calculation of Solar Insolation
    • 2.5. Solar Radiation Data
    • Measurement of Solar Radiation
    • Analysis of Solar Irradiance Data Sets
    • Typical Meteorological Year Data (TMY)
    • Making Use of TMY Data
    • Average Solar Radiation
    • Isoflux Contour Plots
    • Sunshine Hour Data
    • Cloud Cover Data
    • Chapter 2 Quiz
  • 3. PN Junction
    • 3. PN Junction
    • Introduction
    • 3.1. Basics
    • Semiconductor Materials
    • Semiconductor Structure
    • Conduction in Semiconductors
    • Band Gap
    • Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
    • Doping
    • Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
    • 3.2. Generation
    • Absorption of Light
    • Absorption Coefficient
    • Absorption Depth
    • Generation Rate
    • 3.3. Recombination
    • Types of Recombination
    • Lifetime
    • Diffusion Length
    • Surface Recombination
    • 3.4. Carrier Transport
    • Movement of Carriers in Semiconductors
    • Diffusion
    • Drift
    • 3.5. P-n Junctions
    • Formation of a PN-Junction
    • P-N Junction Diodes
    • Bias of PN Junctions
    • Diode Equation
    • 3.6. Diode Equations for PV
    • Ideal Diode Equation Derivation
    • Basic Equations
    • Applying the Basic Equations to a PN Junction
    • Solving for Depletion Region
    • Solving for Quasi Neutral Regions
    • Finding Total Current
    • Eg1: Wide Base Diode
    • Eg2: Narrow Base Diode
    • Summary
    • Chapter 3 Quiz
  • 4. Solar Cell Operation
    • 4. Solar Cell Operation
    • 4.1. Ideal Solar Cells
    • Solar Cell Structure
    • Light Generated Current
    • Collection Probability
    • Quantum Efficiency
    • Spectral Response
    • The Photovoltaic Effect
    • 4.2. Solar Cell Parameters
    • IV Curve
    • Short-Circuit Current
    • Open-Circuit Voltage
    • Fill Factor
    • Efficiency
    • Detailed Balance
    • Tandem Cells
    • 4.3. Resistive Effects
    • Characteristic Resistance
    • Effect of Parasitic Resistances
    • Series Resistance
    • Shunt Resistance
    • 4.4. Other Effects
    • Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
    • Effect of Temperature
    • Effect of Light Intensity
    • Ideality Factor
    • Chapter 4 Quiz
  • 5. Design of Silicon Cells
    • 5. Design of Silicon Cells
    • Solar Cell Design Principles
    • 5.1. Optical Properties
    • Optical Losses
    • Anti-Reflection Coatings
    • AR Coating Color
    • DLARC
    • Surface Texturing
    • Material Thickness
    • Light Trapping
    • Lambertian Rear Reflectors
    • 5.2. Reducing Recombination
    • Recombination Losses
    • Current Losses Due to Recombination
    • Voltage Losses due to Recombination
    • Surface Recombination
    • 5.3. Top Contact Design
    • Series Resistance
    • Base Resistance
    • Sheet Resistivity
    • Emitter Resistance
    • Contact Resistance
    • Finger Resistance
    • Optimization of Finger Spacing
    • Metal Grid Pattern
    • 5.4. Solar Cell Structure
    • Silicon Solar Cell Parameters
    • Efficiency and Solar Cell Cost
    • Chapter 5 Quiz
  • 6. Manufacturing Si Cells
    • 6. Manufacturing Si Cells
    • First Photovoltaic devices
    • Early Silicon Cells
    • 6.1. Silicon Wаfers & Substrates
    • Refining Silicon
    • Types Of Silicon
    • Single Crystalline Silicon
    • Czochralski Silicon
    • Float Zone Silicon
    • Multi Crystalline Silicon
    • Wafer Slicing
    • Other Wafering Techniques
    • 6.2. Processing Technologies
    • Solid State Diffusion
    • 6.3. Cell Fabrication Technologies
    • Screen Printed Solar Cells
    • Buried Contact Solar Cells
    • High Efficiency Solar Cells
    • Rear Contact Solar Cells
    • 6.4. Solar Cell Production Line
    • Introduction
    • Source Material
    • Growing Ingots
    • Sawing the Ingot into Bricks
    • Wafer Slicing
    • Texturing
    • Emitter Diffusion
    • Edge Isolation
    • Anti Reflection Coatings
    • Screen Print Front
    • Screen Print Rear Aluminium
    • Screen Print Rear Silver
    • Firing
    • Testing
    • Module
  • 7. Modules and Arrays
    • 7. Modules and Arrays
    • Introduction
    • 7.1. Module Design
    • Module Structure
    • Module Materials
    • Packing Density
    • 7.2. Interconnection Effects
    • Module Circuit Design
    • Mismatch Effects
    • Mismatch for Cells Connected in Series
    • Shading
    • Hot Spot Heating
    • Bypass Diodes
    • Mismatch for Cells Connected in Parallel
    • Mismatch Effects in Arrays
    • 7.3. Temperature Effects
    • PV Module Temperature
    • Heat Generation in PV Modules
    • Heat Loss in PV Modules
    • Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
    • Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stresses
    • 7.4. Other Considerations
    • Electrical and Mechanical Insulation
    • 7.5. Lifetime of PV Modules
    • Degradation and Failure Modes
  • 8. Characterization
    • 8. Characterization
    • Introduction
    • 8.1 Measurement of Solar Cell Efficiency
    • Illumination Sources
    • Temperature Control
    • Electronics
    • Probing
    • 8.2. Other IV Measurements
    • Dark IV Measurements
    • Jsc-Voc and Suns-Voc
    • 8.3. IV Characterization
    • Measurement of Series Resistance
    • Double Diode Model
    • Measuring Ideality Factor
    • 8.4. Optical Characterization
    • Reflectance
    • Spectral Response
    • Laser Beam Induced Current
    • 8.5. Lifetime
    • Carrier Lifetime
    • Bulk Lifetime
    • Surface Recombination
    • Transient Measurements
    • Quasi-Steady-State Lifetime Measurements
    • General Lifetime Measurements
    • Effect of Trapping on Lifetime Measurements
    • 8.6. Luminescence
    • Electroluminescence
    • 8.7. Simulation
    • Introduction to Simulation
    • PC1D
    • Tandem Calculations
    • 2D Modeling
    • SEM and EBIC
    • Four Point Probe Resistivity Measurements
  • 9. Material Properties
    • 9. Material Properties
    • General Properties of Silicon
    • Optical Properties of Silicon
    • Bi2S3
    • CZTSSe Theory and Fabrication
    • CdS
    • CdSe
    • CuInSe2
    • CuO
    • CuS
    • FeS2
    • Mg2Si
    • MnS
    • SnS
    • TiS2
    • ZnSe
  • 10. Batteries
    • 10. Batteries
    • Storage in PV Systems
    • 10.2 Battery Basics
      • 10.2 Battery Basics
      • Basic Battery Operation
      • Oxidation/Reduction Reaction
      • Electrochemical Potential
      • Standard Potential
      • Nernst Equation
      • Ideal battery capacity
    • 10.3 Battery Non-equilibrium
    • 10.4. Battery Characteristics
      • 10.4. Battery Characteristics
      • Battery Capacity
      • Battery Charging and Discharging Parameters
      • Battery Efficiency
      • Battery Lifetime and Maintenance
      • Battery Voltage
      • Other Electrical Battery Parameters
      • Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics
    • 10.5. Lead Acid Batteries
      • 10.5. Lead Acid Batteries
      • Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries
      • Operation of Lead Acid Batteries
    • 10.6. Other Battery Types
    • 10.7 Function and Use of Storage
    • Chapter 10 Quiz
  • 11. Appendices
    • 11. Appendices
    • Solar Cell Efficiency Records
    • Standard Solar Spectra
    • Periodic Table
    • Units and Conversions
    • Physical Constants
    • Equations for Photovoltaics
  • Korean Version
  • List of:
    • List of:
    • Equations
    • Flash Animations
    • Interactive Graphs
    • References

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  • Welcome to PVCDROM
  • Characterisation

Characterisation

Characterisation module

  • Introduction
  • Measurement of Solar Cell Efficiency
  • Illumination Sources
  • Temperature Control
  • Electronics
  • Probing
  • Dark IV Measurements
  • Jsc-Voc and Suns-Voc
  • Measurement of Series Resistance
  • Double Diode Model
  • Measuring Ideality Factor
  • Reflectance
  • Spectral Response
  • Laser Beam Induced Current
  • Carrier Lifetime
  • Bulk Lifetime
  • Separator
  • Surface Recombination
  • Transient Measurements
  • Quasi-Steady-State Lifetime Measurements
  • General Lifetime Measurements
  • Effect of Trapping on Lifetime Measurements
  • Electroluminescence
  • Introduction to Simulation
  • PC1D
  • Tandem Calculations
  • 2D Modeling
  • SEM and EBIC
  • Four Point Probe Resistivity Measurements
‹ Degradation and Failure Modes Introduction ›
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Christiana Honsberg
and Stuart Bowden
  • Instructions
  • 1. Introduction
    • Solar Energy
    • Introduction
    • The Greenhouse Effect
  • 2. Properties of Sunlight
    • 2.1. Basics of Light
    • Properties of Light
    • Energy of Photon
    • Photon Flux
    • Spectral Irradiance
    • Radiant Power Density
    • 2.2. Blackbody Radiation
    • Blackbody Radiation
    • 2.3. Solar Radiation
    • The Sun
    • Solar Radiation in Space
    • Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere
    • 2.4. Terrestrial Solar Radiation
    • Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
    • Atmospheric Effects
    • Air Mass
    • Motion of the Sun
    • Solar Time
    • Declination Angle
    • Elevation Angle
    • Azimuth Angle
    • The Sun's Position
    • Sun Position Calculator
    • Sun's Position to High Accuracy
    • Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
    • Arbitrary Orientation and Tilt
    • Calculation of Solar Insolation
    • 2.5. Solar Radiation Data
    • Measurement of Solar Radiation
    • Analysis of Solar Irradiance Data Sets
    • Typical Meteorological Year Data (TMY)
    • Making Use of TMY Data
    • Average Solar Radiation
    • Isoflux Contour Plots
    • Sunshine Hour Data
    • Cloud Cover Data
    • Chapter 2 Quiz
  • 3. PN Junction
    • Introduction
    • 3.1. Basics
    • Semiconductor Materials
    • Semiconductor Structure
    • Conduction in Semiconductors
    • Band Gap
    • Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
    • Doping
    • Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
    • 3.2. Generation
    • Absorption of Light
    • Absorption Coefficient
    • Absorption Depth
    • Generation Rate
    • 3.3. Recombination
    • Types of Recombination
    • Lifetime
    • Diffusion Length
    • Surface Recombination
    • 3.4. Carrier Transport
    • Movement of Carriers in Semiconductors
    • Diffusion
    • Drift
    • 3.5. P-n Junctions
    • Formation of a PN-Junction
    • P-N Junction Diodes
    • Bias of PN Junctions
    • Diode Equation
    • 3.6. Diode Equations for PV
    • Ideal Diode Equation Derivation
    • Basic Equations
    • Applying the Basic Equations to a PN Junction
    • Solving for Depletion Region
    • Solving for Quasi Neutral Regions
    • Finding Total Current
    • Eg1: Wide Base Diode
    • Eg2: Narrow Base Diode
    • Summary
    • Chapter 3 Quiz
  • 4. Solar Cell Operation
    • 4.1. Ideal Solar Cells
    • Solar Cell Structure
    • Light Generated Current
    • Collection Probability
    • Quantum Efficiency
    • Spectral Response
    • The Photovoltaic Effect
    • 4.2. Solar Cell Parameters
    • IV Curve
    • Short-Circuit Current
    • Open-Circuit Voltage
    • Fill Factor
    • Efficiency
    • Detailed Balance
    • Tandem Cells
    • 4.3. Resistive Effects
    • Characteristic Resistance
    • Effect of Parasitic Resistances
    • Series Resistance
    • Shunt Resistance
    • 4.4. Other Effects
    • Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
    • Effect of Temperature
    • Effect of Light Intensity
    • Ideality Factor
    • Chapter 4 Quiz
  • 5. Design of Silicon Cells
    • Solar Cell Design Principles
    • 5.1. Optical Properties
    • Optical Losses
    • Anti-Reflection Coatings
    • AR Coating Color
    • DLARC
    • Surface Texturing
    • Material Thickness
    • Light Trapping
    • Lambertian Rear Reflectors
    • 5.2. Reducing Recombination
    • Recombination Losses
    • Current Losses Due to Recombination
    • Voltage Losses due to Recombination
    • Surface Recombination
    • 5.3. Top Contact Design
    • Series Resistance
    • Base Resistance
    • Sheet Resistivity
    • Emitter Resistance
    • Contact Resistance
    • Finger Resistance
    • Optimization of Finger Spacing
    • Metal Grid Pattern
    • 5.4. Solar Cell Structure
    • Silicon Solar Cell Parameters
    • Efficiency and Solar Cell Cost
    • Chapter 5 Quiz
  • 6. Manufacturing Si Cells
    • First Photovoltaic devices
    • Early Silicon Cells
    • 6.1. Silicon Wаfers & Substrates
    • Refining Silicon
    • Types Of Silicon
    • Single Crystalline Silicon
    • Czochralski Silicon
    • Float Zone Silicon
    • Multi Crystalline Silicon
    • Wafer Slicing
    • Other Wafering Techniques
    • 6.2. Processing Technologies
    • Solid State Diffusion
    • 6.3. Cell Fabrication Technologies
    • Screen Printed Solar Cells
    • Buried Contact Solar Cells
    • High Efficiency Solar Cells
    • Rear Contact Solar Cells
    • 6.4. Solar Cell Production Line
    • Introduction
    • Source Material
    • Growing Ingots
    • Sawing the Ingot into Bricks
    • Wafer Slicing
    • Texturing
    • Emitter Diffusion
    • Edge Isolation
    • Anti Reflection Coatings
    • Screen Print Front
    • Screen Print Rear Aluminium
    • Screen Print Rear Silver
    • Firing
    • Testing
    • Module
  • 7. Modules and Arrays
    • Introduction
    • 7.1. Module Design
    • Module Structure
    • Module Materials
    • Packing Density
    • 7.2. Interconnection Effects
    • Module Circuit Design
    • Mismatch Effects
    • Mismatch for Cells Connected in Series
    • Shading
    • Hot Spot Heating
    • Bypass Diodes
    • Mismatch for Cells Connected in Parallel
    • Mismatch Effects in Arrays
    • 7.3. Temperature Effects
    • PV Module Temperature
    • Heat Generation in PV Modules
    • Heat Loss in PV Modules
    • Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
    • Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stresses
    • 7.4. Other Considerations
    • Electrical and Mechanical Insulation
    • 7.5. Lifetime of PV Modules
    • Degradation and Failure Modes
  • 8. Characterization
    • Introduction
    • 8.1 Measurement of Solar Cell Efficiency
    • Illumination Sources
    • Temperature Control
    • Electronics
    • Probing
    • 8.2. Other IV Measurements
    • Dark IV Measurements
    • Jsc-Voc and Suns-Voc
    • 8.3. IV Characterization
    • Measurement of Series Resistance
    • Double Diode Model
    • Measuring Ideality Factor
    • 8.4. Optical Characterization
    • Reflectance
    • Spectral Response
    • Laser Beam Induced Current
    • 8.5. Lifetime
    • Carrier Lifetime
    • Bulk Lifetime
    • Surface Recombination
    • Transient Measurements
    • Quasi-Steady-State Lifetime Measurements
    • General Lifetime Measurements
    • Effect of Trapping on Lifetime Measurements
    • 8.6. Luminescence
    • Electroluminescence
    • 8.7. Simulation
    • Introduction to Simulation
    • PC1D
    • Tandem Calculations
    • 2D Modeling
    • SEM and EBIC
    • Four Point Probe Resistivity Measurements
  • 9. Material Properties
    • General Properties of Silicon
    • Optical Properties of Silicon
    • Bi2S3
    • CZTSSe Theory and Fabrication
    • CdS
    • CdSe
    • CuInSe2
    • CuO
    • CuS
    • FeS2
    • Mg2Si
    • MnS
    • SnS
    • TiS2
    • ZnSe
  • 10. Batteries
    • Storage in PV Systems
    • 10.2 Battery Basics
      • Basic Battery Operation
      • Oxidation/Reduction Reaction
      • Electrochemical Potential
      • Standard Potential
      • Nernst Equation
      • Ideal battery capacity
    • 10.3 Battery Non-equilibrium
    • 10.4. Battery Characteristics
      • Battery Capacity
      • Battery Charging and Discharging Parameters
      • Battery Efficiency
      • Battery Lifetime and Maintenance
      • Battery Voltage
      • Other Electrical Battery Parameters
      • Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics
    • 10.5. Lead Acid Batteries
      • Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries
      • Operation of Lead Acid Batteries
    • 10.6. Other Battery Types
    • 10.7 Function and Use of Storage
    • Chapter 10 Quiz
  • 11. Appendices
    • Solar Cell Efficiency Records
    • Standard Solar Spectra
    • Periodic Table
    • Units and Conversions
    • Physical Constants
    • Equations for Photovoltaics
  • Korean Version
  • List of:
    • Equations
    • Flash Animations
    • Interactive Graphs
    • References

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